Many of us have agonized about whether or not to place a comma after the next-to-last item in a series, before the “and.” We’ve heard it’s a rule to put it in; we’ve also heard the rule dropped away, and the comma’s not necessary.

Most current reference books, while not requiring this serial comma, strongly recommend putting it in, especially if the meaning would be unclear without it.

Example: The following positions are available: clerk, accountant, receptionist and statistical typist.
How many jobs are available? Three? Four? Without the comma, it’s possible to misread it. It might seem as though one person is being asked to perform the duties of receptionist and statistical typist. (Yes, of course, we can always rewrite it to make it even clearer!)

Example: The following positions are available: clerk, accountant, receptionist, and statistical typist.
Here, it’s easier to understand there are four jobs available.

Coordinate Adjectives

Learning when to put a comma between two or more adjectives takes practice. There is a rule, but it’s not always easy to decide if it applies. The test is to see if and fits between the adjectives; if it does, logically and easily, they are coordinate. If you leave and out, you need a comma to take its place. This is not an absolute science, however; it’s possible to disagree about whether you would have used and in the first place.

Example: The old stone wall is crumbling.
Few of us would say it’s an old and stone wall. Most of us would say that stone wall is a compound noun and old modifies it; therefore, no comma is necessary.

Example: The dry, dirty ditch will be filled with water when it rains.
Here, most of us would probably say the dry and dirty ditch; a ditch could be dirty one week and clean the next. It’s unlikely anyone would call dirty ditch a compound noun.

Direct Address

When introducing someone’s directly quoted words, we usually place a comma just before the quotation marks. Do not use quotation marks if the words are paraphrased or not exactly quoted.

Example: Sam asked, “Where are my red mittens?”
But: Sam asked where his red mittens were.

Nonessential information is grammatically unnecessary in a sentence. While it can be helpful and perhaps nice to know, it’s not critical for complete understanding of the sentence.

One way of determining if information is essential or not is to leave it out; if the sentence still makes sense, it’s not necessary.

Another way to decide is to see if it makes sense to put the information within parentheses; these usually do enclose extra information. If you can imagine the information within ( ), it’s probably not necessary to the sentence.

The comma rule is quite easy: replace each half of the ( ) with a comma. Yes, that means you need two commas to enclose the information — just as the parentheses did.

Examples:
The copier (which is in the hall) is broken.
The copier, which is in the hall, is broken.

Here, the basic sentence is “The copier is broken.” In other words, there is only one copier and it’s broken. Its location, while helpful to know, does not describe it any more fully. One copier is still one copier and no matter where it is, it’s broken. By putting “which is in the hall” within either parentheses or commas, you are indicating that the information, while helpful, is not needed to distinguish this copier from any other. If you only have one, its whereabouts are not critical to the sentence. No matter where it is, it’s broken!

Should you use parentheses or commas? The commas are the better choice; parentheses are just too big to use often in a document. Because they do enclose nonessential information, and because most of us are curious and will focus on the unexpected, we’re apt to read what’s in the parentheses first. So, we’ll be reading the stuff the writer doesn’t consider important! Stick with commas, which are unobtrusive.

Essential material is necessary for complete understanding.

Example:
The copier that is on the second floor is broken.
(Yes, you can also write “The copier on the second floor is broken.”)

This sentence is meant to show that there are several copiers, and only the one on the second floor is broken. Notice, too, the word that; it’s the preferred word to use when introducing essential information (if you use anything at all). This information is considered essential because it specifies which copier you are talking about. Wouldn’t you like to know which one needs fixing without running all through the building testing each one?

Example:
The red mittens that are on the table are Sam’s.
The red mittens on the table are Sam’s.

This says that of all the red mittens you might find around the house, those on the table are Sam’s. Therefore, the information is essential to distinguish Sam’s mittens from anyone else’s.

Example: The red mittens, which are on the table, are Sam’s.

Here you’re saying that there is only one pair of red mittens, and they are Sam’s. The fact that they are on the table is helpful, perhaps, but it’s not critical for identification. No matter where they are, they are still Sam’s mittens.

Appositives are nonessential words that explain what came before. They are often titles or occupations of people, but they don’t have to be.

The basic rule is this: If the title comes directly before the name and is used as a title, rather than as an occupation, no commas separate it from the person. If the title/occupation follows the name, use commas around it.

Remember, too, that titles may be more than one word. The test is trying to remove the name that follows. If you can’t, you don’t use commas. You can also substitute a one-word title such as Mr. or Ms.; would you ever write “Ms., Susan Brown is on vacation”? No, I didn’t think so. Multi-word titles are treated the same as single words would be.

Examples of appositives:
Bill Gates (CEO of Microsoft) is on vacation this week.
Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is on vacation this week.
The CEO of Microsoft, Bill Gates, is on vacation this week.
The CEO, Bill Gates, is on vacation this week.
Titles: CEO Bill Gates is on vacation this week.
State Auditor and Legislator Bill Gates is on vacation.

Another type of appositive:
Our company (located on Elm Street) is the oldest firm in town.
Our company, located on Elm Street, is the oldest firm in town.
Our company, which is located on Elm Street, is the oldest firm in town.

Interrupters are another type of nonessential information, a word or words awkwardly placed that interrupt the normal flow of a sentence. Again, we surround them with commas because they are not essential information.

Examples:
The red mittens, however, are on the table.
The living room, for example, has painted walls.

The words however and for example are the interrupters. Clearly, we could delete them, and the sentences would still make sense.

Here’s another one that is proving to be difficult for many:

Examples:
I’ve lived in North Easton (Massachusetts) for many years.
I’ve lived in North Easton, Massachusetts, for many years.

In this type of sentence, the state is nonessential information (from a grammatical point of view). You have a perfectly valid sentence without it. Adding it does give the reader information, but even without it, the reader understands the main point of the sentence.

Notice how easily the state’s name could go within parentheses; many times we actually do this to let the reader know exactly which state our town is in.

The same thinking holds true for dates. Most of us know that the day of the week, the month, and the day must be separated by commas. However, many of us do not use the final comma after the year — it’s required because the information (the year) is not grammatically essential!

Example: Friday, July 1, 2005, will be my last day on the job.

The last type of interrupter is someone’s name in the middle of a sentence, usually placed there for emphasis. We again surround it with commas.

Example: Your red mittens, Sam, are on the table.

If you choose to start the sentence with the name, use just one comma after it.

Example: Sam, your red mittens are on the table.

Newer thinking says possessives are merely a shorthand way of indicating a relationship between two nouns; they can include humans, other animate beings, inanimate objects, or ideas.

Possessives have two characteristics: an apostrophe and the letter s. But how do you know exactly where the apostrophe goes? Here are the steps to forming possessives.

First, decide if the word you are making possessive (the first word in the pair) is singular or plural.

Because “tables legs” could be either “legs of the table” or “legs of the tables,” it’s important to know which word is right for your sentence. Are you writing about one table or more than one?

Here are the traditional rules for forming possessives:

1. If the word is singular, add an apostrophe and the letter s.
   • IF “tables legs” is really “legs of the table,” you would write “the table’s legs.”
2. If the word is a regular plural, one that ends in s or es, add only an apostrophe. You already have the s built into the word.
   • IF “tables legs” is really “legs of the tables,” you would write “the tables’ legs.”
3. If the word is an irregular plural, one that does not end in s or es, add an apostrophe and s.
   • Examples include men, women, children, and people. This one should be the easiest to spot, because without the apostrophe, the words mens, womens, or childrens don’t exist. They are already plural without the s; you can’t have plural plurals!

the room of the men = the men’s room
the clothing of the women = the women’s clothing
the toys of the children = the children’s toys
the choice of the people = the people’s choice

Now, can #1 ever be written differently? Yes, according to modern usage, which says that a singular noun ending in s needs only the apostrophe.

So, it’s acceptable to write “the goddess’ eyes” if you’re writing about one goddess, or “Jesus’ parables” when writing about Jesus. But because so many people are confused about working with possessives, it’s often better to stick with the original three rules as listed above.

Nominative pronouns can only be used as the subject of a verb or a sentence.
Objective pronouns can only be used as the object of a verb, sentence, or preposition.
Reflexive pronouns can only be used to direct action back to the subject (think mirror image) or as intensifiers.

To decide which pronoun to use, focus on them one at a time. Simply ignore any other pronoun or person in the sentence. Once you’ve chosen the correct pronoun, keep the form when you add back the other people.

Here’s how to do it!

Nominative pronouns are the subject of the verb.

Her / She and her mother went to the movies. Although it’s tempting to choose Her at the beginning of the sentence, it doesn’t work. To make the right choice, ignore the words and her mother. Would you really say, “Her went to the movies”? When you add back her mother, the complete sentence is, “She and her mother went to the movies.”

Bill and I / me went out. Here, delete Bill and. Would you ever say “Me went out”? Probably not. You’d say “I went out.” So the sentence must be “Bill and I went out.”

She’s older than me / I. While most of us say, “She’s older than me,” it’s wrong. What’s missing is the verb at the end of the sentence, and even if we neither write nor say this verb, it governs the choice of the pronoun.

The real sentence with the verb is, “She’s older than I am.”
(It’s bigger than we are. It’s smaller than he was.)

Can you ever end with the objective form in this type of sentence? Yes. It all depends on exactly what you mean.

Jack likes Fred better than me / I.
Could be: Jack likes Fred better than me (better than he likes me).
Could be: Jack likes Fred better than I (better than I do).

For clarity in this type of situation, write the sentence out completely.

Objective pronouns are the object of a verb or a preposition.

Jon asked Liz and I / me to go with him/he and Sharon. First, remove Liz. You’re left with, “Jon asked I” or “Jon asked me.”

You know that me is right. (Would you ever say, “Jon asked I”?) Not likely.

Your second choice involves him / he. “Jon asked Liz to go with him.” Because with is a preposition, and because 99% of the time pronouns following prepositions will be objective case, you must use him.

Full sentence: Jon asked Liz and me to go with him and Sharon.

Reflexive pronouns must reflect back to the subject, referring to the same person. They’re used as a mirror image of the subject.

Jon asked Mary and myself / me to join him. There are two ways to decide which is correct. Either remove Mary and, and choose between myself/me alone, or ask yourself if Jon and myself are the same person. As they are not the same person, you cannot say or write, “Jon asked Mary and myself to join him.”

The correct sentence is, “Jon asked Mary and me to join him.”

You can say, “I hurt myself while jogging.” (I and myself are the same person.)

Reflexive pronouns are also used as intensifiers — making a statement strong, more certain by the repetition. For example:

I myself saw her go into the store.
Jon himself will write the quarterly report.
The students themselves heard the teacher’s instructions.

Who and Whom

Who and whom follow the same basic pronoun rules: Who is always the subject of a verb; whom is always the object.

In order to decide which to use, make a simple substitution. In any sentence or clause, substitute he for who, him for whom. Using the masculine forms is advised because they sound so much like who and whom. Sometimes you’ll have to rewrite the clause containing (following) who or whom for it to make sense.

Who / whom should I say is calling? Many people mistakenly say, “Whom should I say is calling?”

By rewriting it slightly, you can see it should be who. It could be either, “Should I say he / him is calling?” or “I should say he / him is calling.” In either case, he fits, so you use who, the subject of the verb is calling. The correct sentence is, “Who should I say is calling?”

Who / whom did you go with? Most of us would use who. But by rewriting it slightly, it’s easy to see that it has to be whom. “Did you go with he / him?” So the real sentence is, “Whom did you go with?” You could also say/write, “With whom did you go?”

Here’s a tough pair:

You may vote for whoever / whomever you wish.
You may vote for whoever / whomever you think is the better candidate.

The first sentence requires whomever: You wish to vote for him. The second sentence requires whoever, even though it looks so similar: You think he is the better candidate.

Remember to focus on the clause following who or whom. Otherwise, it’s easy to see the preposition for in both sentences and think that you use whom in both.

Eating lunch every day is an everyday event.

Even the big companies aren’t immune: Martha Sewart. Everyday. is just plain wrong.

The word RAVEN can help you remember the first two definitions, the ones you’ll most likely use in business writing.

Remember
Affect
Verb
Effect
Noun

(Only if your firm is within one hour’s driving time of southeastern Massachusetts)

My Lunch Lessons programs were developed in response to corporate requests for shorter, more effective training programs for their personnel. Although the traditional full-day programs offer a great deal, many times they are an information overload.

Lunch Lessons are different.

• Lunch Lessons are two-hour “bites” of training over several weeks.
• Lunch Lessons provide time for participants to absorb and practice new skills.
• Lunch Lessons ensure that participants retain information through repetition and review.
• Lunch Lessons allow true learning to take place.
• Lunch Lessons can be held first, second, or third shift*.

(*Ask about the charge for this.)

Punctuate Like a Pro!

My grammar seminar, Punctuate Like A Pro!, incorporates punctuation and usage guidelines into a full day of grammar information aimed at the adult business professional. It starts with written samples from the workshop participants and conversations with anyone else who is invested in the outcome of the program. From this information, I create a full-day program that will meet the exact needs of your department or organization.

Some of the concepts I usually cover include:

• Capitalization (especially titles)
• Changes in grammar rules and usage
• Essential vs. nonessential clauses (that/which)
• Numbers: when to use figures or words
• Parts of speech, including the complete rule for using a and an
• Pronouns, including who and whom
• Punctuation rules for colons, commas, semicolons, etc.
• Sentence types and the comma rules for each Vocabulary (affect/effect — lie/lay — anxious/eager — i.e./e.g.)

In addition to the customized workbook used in the class, each participant also receives a copy of GG’s 16-page booklet, also called Punctuate Like A Pro!

You may think I forgot the fine work you did proofreading our visitors guide “Discover Corning.” Not so! I have just been very slow in sending this letter of appreciation. Everyone here at the Chamber appreciated your comments. Your evaluation is the most comprehensive I have ever witnessed.

Martin J. Muggleton, President
Greater Corning Area Chamber of Commerce
Corning, N.Y.

There’s no reason to struggle with grammar. I have innovative ways to help you remember the rules, and I’m used to working with professionals whose last day of formal schooling was 20+ years ago.

In just one day, I can get you and/or your staff back on track and save you time, money, and embarrassment.

Principles of Business Writing

Your documents, especially your letters and e-mails, are the ambassadors of your organization. Do you know what they’re saying about you?

Are your documents sending the right message to your readers? Is the message one of total quality throughout your organization? Do your documents reinforce that image . . . or do they detract from it?

How much time do you and your staff spend creating letters, memos, reports, or e-mails? Do you write as you were taught in school, perhaps pursuing elegance at the expense of readability and comprehension? Do you write and rewrite, and still end up with documents that don’t work as you intended?

Many thanks for your thoughtful critique of one of my half-year client letters. All points have been re-read with interest and are entirely clear to me. There is nothing like reviewing one’s own style through the eyes of the recipient, which you did in depth. Thanks for the great effort!

John H. Grummon
North American Management Corp.
Boston, Mass.

What can The Grammar Goddess do for you?

I can show you how to create professional documents — every time! You and your staff will learn how to format correctly, how to write for your reader(s), and how to get the results you expect and need.

It all starts with sample letters, memos, reports, or e-mails — whatever the participants usually write — that you send to me. From these and conversations with you and/or other decision makers, I construct a program tailored to your needs. I use your language, your jargon, and your issues (view sample workbook page) to make everything relevant to those who attend the workshop from your firm.

Some of the topics we can cover in a highly interactive one-day seminar include:

• Organizing material before writing
• Creating parallel structure
• Understanding power language
• Using active and passive voice effectively
• Replacing smothered verbs with power verbs
• Using the optimum number of words in sentences and paragraphs
• Eliminating redundancies and jargon
• Preparing professional-looking memos, letters, and reports

If the documents in your organization don’t reflect the quality of the work behind them, this program will get you back on track.

Speak Out Successfully!

What’s going on in your organization?

Is your organization dealing with hurt feelings, misunderstandings, or negativity? It might be because people aren’t communicating effectively. Most of us don’t know how to use language to gain a specific result, and we definitely don’t know how to listen.

We don’t always understand someone else’s body language or how to decode mixed messages. We’re wrapped up in our own little worlds; we’re often confused and angered by others’ unexpected responses to what we’ve said. We blame them; they blame us. Frustration and tension can grow.

I have received wonderful feedback from all the course participants. They had only good things to say about Susan — that she was very enthusiastic, she obviously knows the topic well, and she was good at taking into consideration the fact that not everybody in the course was on the same level.

Helen Woods, Bonnita (EDMS) BPK
Bonnita (PTY) LTD, Johannesburg, South Africa

How can you improve morale, increase productivity, and enhance your organization’s business relationships?

Bring one of these fine programs to your organization!

• Creating Powerful and Effective Annual Reviews
• Maintaining Emotional Control
• Men & Women (Mis)communicating
• Managing Stress
• Learning to Listen Effectively
• Using HEART-Smart Communication Strategies
• Creating and Running Effective Business Meetings
• The First-Time Supervisor’s Survival Guide (12 hours)
• Succeeding as a Supervisor (18 hours)

If there is a communication-based program you’d like to have presented at your organization and you don’t see it listed above, please contact me.

And how can anyone not love Bermuda? The houses are wonderfully colored (OK, coloured), the sky is blue, and the ocean is everywhere. A tiny group of islands measuring only 21 square miles captures everyone’s heart; many people return year after year for all that Bermuda has to offer.

I can’t wait for my turn!

• San Juan

Have you ever toured Old San Juan? Walked through El Yunque rain forest or El Morro Castle? I did. Have you ever eaten black beans and rice? I did. Have you ever explored this fascinating island? I did! The history — the people — the food! This is an island not to be missed, and it’s close — at least to the East Coast.